Review
Associations of children's independent mobility and active travel with physical activity, sedentary behaviour and weight status: A systematic review

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Abstract

Health benefits from children's independent mobility and active travel beyond school travel are largely unexplored.

Objectives

This review synthesized the evidence for associations of independent mobility and active travel to various destinations with physical activity, sedentary behaviour and weight status.

Methods

A systematic search in six databases (PubMed, Scopus, CINAHL, SportDiscus, PsychInfo, TRIS) for papers published between January 1990 and March 2012 was undertaken, focussing on children aged 3–18 years. Study inclusion and methodological quality were independently assessed by two reviewers.

Results

52 studies were included. Most studies focussed solely on active travel to and/or from school, and showed significant positive associations with physical activity. The same relationship was detected for active travel to leisure-related places and independent mobility with physical activity. An inverse relationship between active travel to school and weight status was evident but findings were inconsistent. Few studies examined correlations between active travel to school and self-reported screen-time or objectively measured sedentary behaviour, and findings were unclear.

Conclusions

Studies on independent mobility suggested that children who have the freedom to play outdoors and travel actively without adult supervision accumulate more physical activity than those who do not. Further investigation of children's active travel to leisure-related destinations, measurement of diverse sedentary behaviour beyond simply screen-based activities, and consistent thresholds for objectively measured sedentary behaviour in children will clarify the inconsistent evidence base on associations of active travel with sedentary behaviour and weight status.

Introduction

In developed countries, children's active travel such as walking and bicycling to school and leisure-related destinations has declined dramatically during the last three decades. Simultaneously, children's commuting by car has increased.1, 2, 3, 4 For example, US data showed that between 1969 and 2001 children's active commuting to school decreased from 41% to 13%, whilst driving to school by car increased from 17% to 55%.4 Active travel without adult accompaniment corresponds to the concept of children's independent mobility which is defined as the freedom of those aged under 18 years to move around in public spaces without adult supervision.5 Independent mobility comprises various unsupervised activities relating to active travel with the purpose of getting to places and play outside the home.6, 7 In 1990, a UK study showed that only 9% of children aged 7–8 years were allowed to travel to school on their own, whereas in 1971 this proportion was 80%.5 Similar declines in independent mobility have been observed in other countries such as the US, Denmark, Finland, Norway and the Netherlands.3, 8, 9 Reasons for the declines in independent mobility and active travel include parental concerns about road safety and stranger danger, inconvenience with families’ daily schedules, and longer commute distances because of increasing urban sprawl.10, 11, 12, 13

The decrease in independent mobility and active travel is concerning since both can contribute towards attaining the recommended daily 60 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and maintaining a healthy weight in children.7, 14, 15 In particular, children who do not attain sufficient physical activity through organized sport may benefit from engaging in active travel and independent mobility.14 Moreover, the independent mobility can provide psychosocial benefits for children in the form of social interactions and connectedness with friends and other people in the neighbourhood.16 Some reviews17, 18, 19, 20 have shown a positive association of active travel to and/or from school with children's overall physical activity, whereas findings in relation to healthy weight appear less robust.17, 19, 20, 21, 22 However, none of these reviews have sought to establish how sedentary behaviour may be associated with active travel. Sedentary behaviour is an emerging independent health risk factor for children's metabolic health, and a behaviour that increases with motorized travel.23, 24 Moreover, previous reviews primarily focused on active travel to school; it remains unknown whether active travel to non-school destinations such as shops, parks, and friend's houses increase children's daily physical activity and reduce the risk of being sedentary and overweight. These are important questions given that the school is only one of several travel destinations for children, and often it is located too far away from home to be considered suitable for active travel.4 Furthermore, children's independent mobility has rarely been examined for its potential to lower the risks of being insufficiently physically active, sedentary and overweight.

This systematic review aims to synthesize the evidence for associations of children's independent mobility and active travel to various destinations with physical activity, sedentary behaviour and weight status. To the authors’ knowledge this is the first systematic review that addresses relationships between independent mobility and active travel to school and non-school destinations with these health factors. Hence, this research builds on previous reviews that have considered relationships solely in regard to active school travel.

Section snippets

Methods

Relevant peer-reviewed, English language literature published between January 1990 and March 2012 was searched across six databases (PubMed, Scopus, CINAHL, SportDiscus, PsychInfo, Transport Research International Documentation). Systematic search strategies were designed using a combination of thesaurus and free terms covering the following terms: child, adolescent, adolescence, youth, kids, independent mobility, active travel, active commuting, active transport, walk, cycle, cycling, physical

Results

A total of 2699 potentially relevant, non-duplicate papers were identified and screened based on title and abstract. Of these, 140 studies were retrieved for detailed review. After exclusion of 88 non-eligible studies, 52 studies were included in this review (Fig. 1 in Supplementary material). General study characteristics are summarized in Table 2; more detailed study characteristics are presented in Table 1 in the Supplementary material. In the majority of studies,31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37,

Discussion

This systematic review of associations of children's independent mobility and active travel with physical activity, sedentary behaviour and weight status identified 52 relevant studies. Of these, twenty-seven studies23, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 44, 47, 49, 52, 53, 54, 55, 58, 62, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75 focused on associations between active school travel and physical activity, and in line with previous reviews17, 19, 20 consistently showed positive associations. Eighty-two

Conclusions

Studies consistently showed that children's active travel to school and other places positively influences their overall levels of physical activity. Emerging evidence on children's independent mobility suggested that children who play outdoors and travel actively without adult supervision accumulate higher levels of physical activity than those who do not. This review revealed important research gaps which require further attention. It remains unknown whether ‘free-range children’ are also

Practical implications

  • Children who have the freedom to play outdoors and travel actively without adult supervision accumulate more physical activity than those who do not.

  • Children's active travel to school and leisure-related destinations increases their physical activity levels.

  • Active travel to leisure-related destinations should be better explored for its preventive effect on sedentary behaviour and overweight.

  • Measurement of sedentary activities beyond simply screen-based activities and clarity on appropriate

Acknowledgements

This review was supported through the Australian Research Council (ARC) funded projects Children's Active Travel, Connectedness and Health (CATCH, Discovery Project DP1094495) and Independent Mobility and Active Travel in Children (iMATCH, LP 100100344). The former project includes financial support from the Merri Community Health Services Victoria, the Moreland City Council, Queensland Health and Queensland Transport which is gratefully acknowledged. The CATCH/iMATCH projects are currently

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