The genesis of GDL

doi:10.1016/S0022-4375(02)00076-2

Journal of Safety Research

Volume 34, Issue 1, 30 January 2003, Pages 17-23

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4375(02)00076-2 Get rights and content

Abstract

This paper discusses the early research that lead to graduated driver licensing, some of the educational principals on which it is based, obstacles to its acceptance, and some of the early efforts in the U.S. and elsewhere. Early research: The research underlying the concept of graduated driver licensing was a 1971 North Carolina study that identified the overrepresentation of young drivers in crashes at night and when another young person was the right front passenger. Educational principals: Efforts to reduce the risk to young novice drivers applied what was known about learning. The concepts included distributed learning (i.e., over time) and progressing from simple to complex skills. A proposal: The proposed graduated licensing system based on learning principals included (a) initial experience under low risk conditions, (b) extended supervised practice, (c) gradual move to more complex conditions, and (d) harsher penalties for deliberate risk-taking. Obstacles: There were several most common objections raised against graduated licensing. Raising the licensing age decreased mobility. Some young drivers were “good” drivers. Enforcement is difficult. Fear of parental objections. Parents are not driver educators and some young people do not have an available parent. Administrative costs are too high. Acceptance: Driver educators were the first to see the benefits of a graduated system in the 1970s and 1980s. Toronto nearly adopted a graduated system in 1976. New Zealand was the first to adopt a graduated licensing system in 1984. Michigan in 1997 was the first state to require parental certification of extended supervised driving practice.

Section snippets

An origin and destination study, North Carolina, 1971

The basis for originally proposing a graduated licensing system for young beginning drivers grew out of two studies conducted in North Carolina in the early 1970s. One involved linking enhanced origin and destination (O&D) data to crash data from the same time and area, and the other linked data on passengers derived from supplemental data collected on state crash report forms. There were major limitations to these early studies and many more comprehensive studies have been conducted since then

Thirty and six

In North Carolina, driver education was much the same as elsewhere, with 30 hours of classroom instruction and 6 hours of practice behind the wheel. The actual driving practice was often less than the official 6 hours.

Harsher penalties for young driver infractions

Like many other states, North Carolina imposed harsher penalties on young drivers in the event of a violation, although it was well known that these young drivers were more prone to driving errors.

Limitations on resources

Driver education instructors probably knew better than others that 6 hours behind

Mass versus distributed learning

It is well established that practice that occurs over time, that is, distributed practice, results in better learning than practice that occurs all at once. Consequently, driving practice over time should be better than mass practice. Early acquisition of driving skill should occur over an extended period.

From simple to complex

In teaching almost any other complex psychomotor skill, instruction begins with relatively simple exercises, with task demands gradually increasing. Yet historically, in young driver

Inexperience versus deliberate risk taking

Although much of the problem of young drivers is attributable to inexperience, it is also true that young drivers may be more prone to deliberate risk taking. When this occurs (e.g., driving after drinking, not using seat belts, driving at exorbitant speeds), it is entirely appropriate to invoke harsher penalties. When inexperience is combined with risk taking, crashes are more likely to occur.

Graduated licensing is not designed to address deliberate risk taking behavior. Rather, it is aimed at

Initial experience should occur under low-risk conditions

Based on what is known about young driver risk, it was proposed that the initial stage of driving practice should be limited to daylight hours, with strict passenger restrictions. Because young drivers are at higher risk of crash, belt use requirements are especially important. Furthermore, because the higher crash risk does not level out until around age 25, alcohol restrictions should be extended to age 25, with zero alcohol below age 21 and no more than 0.05% BAC through age 25.

Extended supervised practice

The initial

Obstacles to acceptance

When a proposal for such a graduated licensing system for young beginning drivers was made in the early 1970s, the response was interesting. Objections to it fell primarily into the following categories.

Was driver education the culprit?

In the 1970s and 1980s, there was a concerted attack on driver education. It was stated that, because licensure could not occur prior to age 18 unless one had completed an approved driver education course, driver education was the problem and that if we eliminated driver education, we would be better off. Indeed, there were headlines that read “Driver education kilss 2,000 young people a year,” attributing all young driver-related fatalities to driver education.

Driver education was never the

References (17)

N.P. Gregersen et al.
Sixteen years age limit for learner drivers in Sweden—an evaluation of safety effects
Accident Analysis and Prevention
(2000)
A.F. Williams et al.
On-the-road driving records of licensed race drivers
Accident Analysis and Prevention
(1974)
W. Haddon
Analogy
(1968, Winter)
H.H. Harman et al.
Evaluation of driver education and training programs
(1969)
Maycock, G., Lockwood, C., & Lester, F. (1991). The accident liability of car drivers (Report No. TRRL RR 315....
P.F. Waller
Driver education: Can its goals be met?
Perception
(1975)
Waller, P. F. (1976a, June). Do current licensing procedures screen out unsafe drivers? Traffic Safety, 76(6), 17–18,...
Waller, P. F. (1976b, July). How effective are driver education and reeducation programs? Traffic Safety, 76(7), 22–24,...
P.F. Waller
Challenging the status quo in driver licensing
Traffic Safety
(1976, October)

There are more references available in the full text version of this article.

Cited by (42)

Alcohol- and speeding-related fatal crashes among novice drivers age 18–20 not fully licensed at the time of the crash
2021, Drug and Alcohol Dependence
Some teens may intentionally delay their driving licensure until age 18 or later, thereby skipping the learning and driver safety benefits provided by graduated driver licensing (GDL) programs. Delaying driving initiation could elevate teen crash risk once they begin driving. This study compares the prevalence of alcohol use and speeding among individuals aged 18–20 y/o who were not fully licensed drivers (NFLD) at the time of the fatal crash with that of their fully licensed counterparts (FLD).
Data came from the 2010–2017 Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS). Census data were added to measure mean household income at drivers’ zip code. Bivariate (chi-square) and logistic regressions were used to assess the likelihood young drivers were alcohol-positive and/or speeding at the time of the crash as a function of drivers’ license status, demographic, socioeconomic, and the strength of GDL programs in the state.
Compared with females and White drivers age 18–20 y/o, males, Latino, and Black drivers were more likely to be NFLD at the time of the fatal crash (p < .0001). Living in zip codes with low median household income (p < .001) and the strength of GDL restrictions (p < .0001) were associated with individuals being NFLD at the time of the fatal crash. Alcohol-related fatal crashes were more prevalent among NFLD than FLD (p < .02).
The study provides indirect evidence suggesting that alcohol use may be more detrimental for NFLD than for FLD.
Adolescent Drivers, Experiential Learning, and the Driver Licensing Process: New Findings, Emerging Questions, and Continuing Policy Needs
2018, Journal of Adolescent Health
Road trauma among young Australians: Implementing policy to reduce road deaths and serious injury
2017, Traffic Injury Prevention
Objective: The objective of this study was to estimate the likely reduction in road trauma associated with the implementation of effective interventions to reduce road trauma among young Australians.
Methods: A desktop evaluation was conducted to model the likely reduction in road trauma (deaths and serious injuries resulting in hospitalization) among young people aged 17–24 years residing in Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria. Potential interventions were identified using a rapid literature review and assigned a score based on evidence of effectiveness and implementation feasibility with the 3 highest scoring interventions included in the modeling. Likely reduction in road trauma was estimated by applying the average risk reduction effect sizes for each intervention to baseline risk (passenger or driver death or serious injury per 100,000 population) of road trauma for young Australians. Point estimates were calculated for the potential number of deaths and serious injuries averted in each state and per 100,000 population, with a one-way sensitivity analysis conducted using uncertainty ranges identified.
Results: Peer passenger and night driving restrictions as well as improved vehicle safety measures had the greatest potential to reduce road trauma. Peer passenger restrictions could avert 14 (range: 5–24) and 24 (range: 8–41) hospitalizations per year in Queensland and New South Wales, respectively, and night driving restrictions could avert 17 (range: 7–26), 28 (range: 12–45), and 13 (range: 6–21) hospitalizations annually in Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria. These interventions reduced fatalities by less than 1 death annually in each state. Improved vehicle safety measures could avert 0–3, 0–4, and 0–3 deaths and 3–91, 4–156, and 2–75 hospitalizations in Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria.
Conclusions: Key elements of graduated licensing (peer passenger and night driving restrictions) along with vehicle safety interventions offer modest but practically significant reductions in road trauma for young Australians. State governments need to revise current legislation to ensure that these reductions in road trauma can be realized.
International approaches to driving under the influence of cannabis: A review of evidence on impact
2016, Drug and Alcohol Dependence
Citation Excerpt :
These authors observed significant reductions in self-reported cannabis use (and use of alcohol and other drugs as well) six months following participation in the remedial program. Graduated licensing programs, where young and/or new drivers first learn to drive subject to restrictions designed to separate them from major causes of collisions (Waller, 2003), are common. These programs usually include restrictions on driving after drinking and have been shown to reduce collisions, injuries, and fatalities among young and new drivers (Brookland and Begg, 2011; Vanlaar et al., 2009).
There are knowledge gaps regarding the effectiveness of different approaches designed to prevent and deter driving under the influence of cannabis (DUIC). Policymakers are increasingly interested in evidence-based responses to DUIC as numerous jurisdictions worldwide have legally regulated cannabis or are debating such regulation. We contribute a comprehensive review of international literature on countermeasures that address DUIC, and identify where and how such measures have been evaluated.
The following databases were systematically searched from 1995 to present: Medline, Embase, PsycINFO, CINAHL, Sociological Abstracts, and Criminal Justice Abstracts. Hand searching of relevant documents, internet searches for grey literature, and review of ongoing email alerts were conducted to capture any emerging literature and relevant trends.
Numerous international jurisdictions have introduced a variety of measures designed to deter DUIC. Much interest has been generated regarding non-zero per se laws that set fixed legal limits for tetrahydrocannabinol and/or its metabolites detected in drivers. Other approaches include behavioural impairment laws, zero-tolerance per se laws, roadside drug testing, graduated licensing system restrictions, and remedial programs. However, very few evaluations have appeared in the literature.
Although some promising results have been reported (e.g., roadside testing), it is premature to draw firm conclusions regarding the broader impacts of general deterrent approaches to DUIC. This review points to the need for a long-term commitment to rigorously evaluate, using multiple methods, the impact of general and specific deterrent DUIC countermeasures.
Who knows about kids these days? Analyzing the determinants of youth and adult mobility in the U.S. between 1990 and 2009
2016, Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice
Citation Excerpt :
Fig. 2 presents a map of the license stringency ranking for each state in 2000 and 2008. Adoption of more stringent license regulations by states shows no consistent pattern by geography (e.g. north-south, east-west, urban-rural) or political orientation (e.g. Republican-Democrat); rather, adoption by particular states has typically followed high profile teen vehicle crashes (Hinchcliff et al., 2011; Waller, 2003). As such, we treated the stringency of license regulations as exogenous to PKT.
The 2000s was a decade of transitions for teens and young adults. In comparison with previous generations of youth, those living in the developed world (i) faced the harshest economic climate in decades, (ii) lived with their parents longer and were more likely to return back home as young adults, (iii) used information and communication technologies (ICTs) extensively, and (iv) in the U.S., were subject to increasingly stringent graduated driver’s licensing (GDL) regulations. All were dramatic societal changes to be sure, but how did they affect youth travel behavior? Some argue dramatically and enduringly, but usually with fragmentary evidence. We examine data from the three most recent U.S. national travel surveys and find that, with one exception, after controlling for personal, household, locational, and travel factors, the effects of factors associated with various societal trends on person-kilometers traveled (PKT) are surprisingly muted. The exception is that decreased employment is associated with substantially lower PKT; however, this effect is 32% greater among older (ages 27–61) than younger (ages 20–26) adults, suggesting that economic factors, rather than changes in youth travel preferences, were at the root of declines in personal travel in the U.S. during the 2000s.
Non-compliance with graduated driver licensing (GDL) requirements: Changes in GDL-related conviction rates over time among 16-17-year-old California drivers
2014, Accident Analysis and Prevention
Self-reports by novice teen drivers in California and elsewhere suggest that many violate graduated driver licensing (GDL) nighttime and passenger restrictions, and to a lesser extent, drive on learner permits without being supervised. Is this corroborated by their traffic conviction records?
We examined historical aggregated conviction rates for GDL-related violations before and after GDL, and Poisson regressions of conviction rates over time among 16–17-year-old California novices.
During the year before they received their provisional licenses, <1% of 16-year-old novices and <2% of 17-year-old novices were convicted of driving unlicensed or unsupervised on their learner permits. Statewide historical conviction rates for these offenses were not higher after GDL was implemented, despite the longer holding period. Convictions for violating GDL nighttime or passenger restrictions were highest almost immediately after provisional licensure, though only about 3% of 16-year-old novices and 2% of 17-year-old novices were ever convicted of violating either restriction.
California 16–17-year-old novice drivers were very rarely convicted of GDL-related violations. The contradictive, large differences between the current findings and self-report surveys are likely due in part to the fact that most self-reports assessed only whether teens had ever violated a GDL-related requirement, which exaggerates prevalence. Our conviction findings are more similar to estimates of non-compliance with GDL-related requirements from naturalistic driving studies that monitor actual driving behavior and take exposure into account, but are lower likely due to issues related to detection, enforcement, and adjudication of violations, as well as limitations of existing naturalistic studies.

View all citing articles on Scopus

View full text

The genesis of GDL

Abstract

Section snippets

An origin and destination study, North Carolina, 1971

Thirty and six

Harsher penalties for young driver infractions

Limitations on resources

Mass versus distributed learning

From simple to complex

Inexperience versus deliberate risk taking

Initial experience should occur under low-risk conditions

Extended supervised practice

Obstacles to acceptance

Was driver education the culprit?

Accident Analysis and Prevention

Accident Analysis and Prevention

Analogy

Evaluation of driver education and training programs

Driver education: Can its goals be met?

Perception

Challenging the status quo in driver licensing

Traffic Safety