The learner's permit
Introduction
Young drivers have a higher risk of collision than older more experienced drivers (Mayhew & Simpson, 1990). For example, Williams (1999) reported that, in 1995 in the United States, 16- to 19-year-old drivers were involved in 17 crashes per million miles of travel compared with drivers in their early 20s and those 40–44, who were involved in 9 and 4 crashes per million miles, respectively. Among teenagers, the youngest and least experienced drivers have the highest crash risk. Sixteen-year-old drivers have 35 crashes per million miles compared to rates of 20 crashes per million miles for 17 year olds, 14 crashes for 18 year olds, and 13 crashes for 19 year olds.
It is generally accepted that both age- and experience-related factors contribute to this overrepresentation because risk declines with increases in age, during which young drivers presumably mature out of their risky lifestyle and their driving skills improve (Simpson, 1996). Recent research also suggests that increasing driving experience is somewhat more important than increased age in reducing collisions among young novices (Mayhew, Simpson & Pak, in press-b). That experience is important is not surprising given that driving is a complex, self-paced task that needs to be learned to gain proficiency and to reduce crash risk.
Recognition that beginners need to learn how to drive and to accumulate their initial experience under low-risk conditions is the main reason why learner's permits are issued as the critical first step in the licensing process. The learner's permit allows beginners to practice under supervision before attempting the road test for a driver's license. The role and features of learner's permits have evolved considerably, especially with the advent of graduated driver licensing (GDL) programs in the past decade.
Section snippets
Origins of learner's permits
Since the advent of the automobile at the turn of the century and the emerging concern with the escalating problem of road crashes, it became increasingly recognized that people needed to be qualified to drive. At issue was the means by which they gained the needed practice to obtain a license. Jurisdictions resolved this issue by adopting provisions that allowed unlicensed drivers to operate vehicles under supervision, a practice that dates back to the early 1900s (Mayhew, Fields, & Simpson,
Learner's permits and graduated driver licensing
The rationale for and history of GDL programs are described in other papers at this conference Simpson, 2003, Waller, 2003, Williams, 2003 and are not covered here. However, it is important to recognize that a learner's permit stage was an integral part of the “provisional” (graduated) licensing model initially formulated by NHTSA in the mid-1970s (Croke & Wilson, 1977).
This early model recommended a voluntary, parent-supervised, learning phase that would apply for 3–6 months. The objective was
Recent developments with learner's permits in GDL programs
In North America, the province of Ontario in April 1994 was the first jurisdiction to introduce a version of GDL with an extended learner's permit. The program for drivers of passenger vehicles phases in on-road driving over a 24-month period in two distinct stages. The 12-month learner stage (G1) requires that the novice is supervised by a fully licensed driver, the supervisor must have a BAC<0.05; only the accompanying driver can be in the front seat; the number of additional passengers is
Support for and experience with an extended learner stage
A key factor in the effectiveness of GDL is the level of support it receives. If parents do not support the program, they might not enforce its restrictions or ensure that their sons/daughters are acquiring the needed practice. If teenagers do not support the program, they might be driving unsupervised and not complying with the requirements to practice under supervision.
Research in Canada and the United States has shown that the level of support for the overall GDL program is high, including
The safety value of the learner stage
Research shows that very few learners crash while under supervision (Williams, Preusser, Ferguson, & Ulmer, 1997). This fact was illustrated in a recent study by Mayhew, Simpson & Pak (in press-a) that examined changes in collision rates among novice drivers during the first few months of driving in the province of Nova Scotia. The crash rates were for a sample of drivers who obtained their learner's permits during 1990–1993, before Nova Scotia adopted GDL (in 1994). Monthly crash rates were
GDL learner stage and driver education
A feature of GDL programs in Canada and a few U.S. states is to grant a time discount to beginners who take driver education, allowing them to graduate several months sooner. As mentioned previously, in Ontario, the learner stage can be reduced from 12 to 8 months by completing an approved driver education course; in Nova Scotia, the learner stage can be reduced from 6 to 3 months if the novice completes a recognized driver education or training course. The safety impact of this time discount
GDL learner stage and license testing
Little attention has been given to the testing requirements to move from the learner to the intermediate stage. Typically, jurisdictions require learners to successfully pass an “on-road” driving test which is designed to ensure that people who drive motor vehicles on highways are competent drivers and that they are aware of safe driving practices and road law. Thus, the test sets the minimum standards for “safe” driving and provides a means to ascertain if someone has achieved that standard
Optimal features of a learner's permit in GDL
To provide direction regarding the best practices in GDL, the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety together with TIRF produced a report “Graduated Licensing: A Blueprint for North America” (IIHS & TIRF, 2002). This document provides recommendations for the structure and contents of such programs, including the learner stage. The key features and recommendations for the learner stage are summarized below:
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Starting age: Maintain the starting age at 16, or raise it to 16.
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Driving restrictions:
Future directions
There is a growing body of research evidence indicating that an extended period of supervised driving practice is a relatively safe activity. As well, other research suggests that the learner stage is the major contributor to the overall safety effectiveness of GDL. Although studies show that GDL learners do practice driving under diverse conditions and appear to drive more under supervision than non-GDL learners, it is not particularly clear the extent to which the experienced gained is
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Structural anatomy and temporal trends of road accident research: Full-scope analyses of the field
2021, Journal of Safety ResearchCan Adolescent Drivers’ Motor Vehicle Crash Risk Be Reduced by Pre-Licensure Intervention?
2018, Journal of Adolescent HealthCitation Excerpt :Because the ODA was not administered to every participant, the trial design presents a unique opportunity to determine if the ODA is associated with crash involvement. This is important because driver licensing evaluations in the U.S. last on average only about 20 minutes and are generally undemanding of drivers [22]. Therefore, there are direct GDL policy implications for identifying if a comprehensive ODA with feedback could be protective against crashes.
Neurocognitive Correlates of Young Drivers' Performance in a Driving Simulator
2016, Journal of Adolescent HealthThe association between kinematic risky driving among parents and their teenage children: Moderation by shared personality characteristics
2014, Accident Analysis and PreventionCitation Excerpt :However, data collection for the Prato et al. study coincided with the period that teenagers were required to drive under the direct supervision of a parent (for the first three months as part of Israel's Graduated Driver Licensing System). Unlike the high crash risk that is associated with first years of licensure (Williams, 2003), research has shown that teenage driving that occurs under parental supervision entails very low crash risk (Mayhew, 2003). Drivers participating in this study also received feedback (Toledo et al., 2008) that was shown to be effective over time in reducing their risky driving behavior and motor vehicle crashes.
The association between kinematic risky driving among parents and their teenage children: Moderation by shared personality characteristics
2014, Accident Analysis and PreventionThe effect of the learner license Graduated Driver Licensing components on teen drivers' crashes
2013, Accident Analysis and PreventionCitation Excerpt :The rationale for selecting this age group was to evaluate the effect of the learner license components on early driving, particularly independent driving. While the licensure status of the 16- and 17- year-olds involved in fatal crashes could not be determined, epidemiological evidence indicates that driving under supervision during the learner license stage entails a very low crash risk (Mayhew, 2003). Therefore, it is likely that the majority of fatal crashes included in these analyses occurred while teens where driving using an intermediate license, which allows teens to drive independently but with restrictions.